The Massachusetts mint of 1652-82 was a remarkably bold expression of colonial sovereignty. As a restored monarchy sought to wrest control of the Boston coinage after 1660, pragmatic moderates within the colony simultaneously sought to overpower the radical faction that, in clinging to the Bay shilling, demonstrated its dangerous pretensions to independence.

Computer simulations of the Ising model exhibit white noise if thermal fluctuations are governed by Boltzmann's factor alone; whereas we find that the same model exhibits 1/f noise if Boltzmann's factor is extended to include local alignment entropy to all orders. We show that this nonlinear correction maintains maximum entropy during equilibrium fluctuations. Indeed, as with the usual way to resolve Gibbs' paradox that avoids entropy reduction during reversible processes, the correction yields the statistics of indistinguishable particles. The correction also ensures conservation of energy if an instantaneous contribution from local entropy is included. Thus, a common mechanism for 1/f noise comes from assuming that finite-size fluctuations strictly obey the laws of thermodynamics, even in small parts of a large system. Empirical evidence for the model comes from its ability to match the measured temperature dependence of the spectral-density exponents in several metals and to show non-Gaussian fluctuations characteristic of nanoscale systems.

Background: Elemental sulfur exists is a variety of forms in natural systems, from dissolved forms (noted as S_8(diss) or in water as S_8(aq)) to bulk elemental sulfur (most stable as α-S₈). Elemental sulfur can form via several biotic and abiotic processes, many beginning with small sulfur oxide or polysulfidic sulfur molecules that coarsen into S₈ rings that then coalesce into larger forms:

S_nO[2− over m] → S_8(aq) → S_8(nano) → S_8(sol) →S _{8(α−S8)(bulk)}. (1)

Formation of elemental sulfur can be possible via two primary techniques to create an emulsion of liquid sulfur in water called sulfur sols that approximate some mechanisms of possible elemental sulfur formation in natural systems. These techniques produce hydrophobic (S_8(Weimarn)) and hydrophilic (S_{8(polysulfide)}) sols that exist as nanoparticle and colloidal suspensions. These sols begin as small sulfur oxide or polysulfidic sulfur molecules, or dissolved S_8(aq) forms, but quickly become nanoparticulate and coarsen into micron sized particles via a combination of classical nucleation, aggregation processes, and/or Ostwald ripening.

Results: We conducted a series of experiments to study the rate of elemental sulfur particle coarsening using dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis under different physical and chemical conditions. Rates of nucleation and initial coarsening occur over seconds to minutes at rates too fast to measure by DLS, with subsequent coarsening of S_8(nano) and S_8(sol) being strongly temperature dependent, with rates up to 20 times faster at 75°C compared to 20°C. The addition of surfactants (utilizing ionic and nonionic surfactants as model compounds) results in a significant reduction of coarsening rates, in addition to known effects of these molecules on elemental sulfur solubility. DLS and cryo-SEM results suggest coarsening is largely a product of ripening processes rather than particle aggregation, especially at higher temperatures. Fitting of the coarsening rate data to established models for Ostwald ripening additionally support this as a primary mechanism of coarsening.

Conclusions: Elemental sulfur sols coarsen rapidly at elevated temperatures and experience significant effects on both solubility and particle coarsening kinetics due to interaction with surfactants. Growth of elemental sulfur nanoparticles and sols is largely governed by Ostwald ripening processes.

The Turán number of an r-uniform hypergraph H is the maximum number of edges in any r-graph on n vertices which does not contain H as a subgraph. Let P[(r) over l] denote the family of r-uniform loose paths on l edges, F(k,l) denote the family of hypergraphs consisting of k disjoint paths from P[(r) over l], and L[(r) over l] denote an r-uniform linear path on l edges. We determine precisely ex_r(n; F(k,l)) and ex_r(n; . L[(r) over l]), as well as the Turán numbers for forests of paths of differing lengths (whether these paths are loose or linear) when n is appropriately large dependent on k,l,r for r ≥ 3. Our results build on recent results of Füredi, Jiang, and Seiver, who determined the extremal numbers for individual paths, and provide more hypergraphs whose Turán numbers are exactly determined.

We present results from experiments at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) demonstrating that serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX) can be performed to high resolution (~2.5 Å) using protein microcrystals deposited on an ultra-thin silicon nitride membrane and embedded in a preservation medium at room temperature. Data can be acquired at a high acquisition rate using x-ray free electron laser sources to overcome radiation damage, while sample consumption is dramatically reduced compared to flowing jet methods. We achieved a peak data acquisition rate of 10 Hz with a hit rate of ~38%, indicating that a complete data set could be acquired in about one 12-hour LCLS shift using the setup described here, or in even less time using hardware optimized for fixed target SFX. This demonstration opens the door to ultra low sample consumption SFX using the technique of diffraction-before-destruction on proteins that exist in only small quantities and/or do not produce the copious quantities of microcrystals required for flowing jet methods.

In 1961, the Canadian geographer John D. Chapman recognized the rapid growth in demand for inanimate energy and the role geographers could be playing in explaining its patterns and importance in the growing world economy (Chapman, 1961). Fifty years later, Karl Zimmerer (2011) introduced a Special Issue of the Annals of the Association of American Geographers by noting that not only had Chapman’s prediction come true but that geographers were studying even a wider spectrum of energy challenges than Chapman could ever have imagined (see e.g. Dorian et al., 2006; Florini, Sovaccol, 2009).

Land-use mapping is critical for global change research. In Central Arizona, U.S.A., the spatial distribution of land use is important for sustainable land management decisions. The objective of this study was to create a land-use map that serves as a model for the city of Maricopa, an expanding urban region in the Sun Corridor of Arizona. We use object-based image analysis to map six land-use types from ASTER imagery, and then compare this with two per-pixel classifications. Our results show that a single segmentation, combined with intermediary classifications and merging, morphing, and growing image-objects, can lead to an accurate land-use map that is capable of utilizing both spatial and spectral information. We also employ a moving-window diversity assessment to help with analysis and improve post-classification modifications.

Climate change will result in reduced soil water availability in much of the world either due to changes in precipitation or increased temperature and evapotranspiration. How communities of mites and nematodes may respond to changes in moisture availability is not well known, yet these organisms play important roles in decomposition and nutrient cycling processes. We determined how communities of these organisms respond to changes in moisture availability and whether common patterns occur along fine-scale gradients of soil moisture within four individual ecosystem types (mesic, xeric and arid grasslands and a polar desert) located in the western United States and Antarctica, as well as across a cross-ecosystem moisture gradient (CEMG) of all four ecosystems considered together.

An elevation transect of three sampling plots was monitored within each ecosystem and soil samples were collected from these plots and from existing experimental precipitation manipulations within each ecosystem once in fall of 2009 and three times each in 2010 and 2011. Mites and nematodes were sorted to trophic groups and analyzed to determine community responses to changes in soil moisture availability. We found that while both mites and nematodes increased with available soil moisture across the CEMG, within individual ecosystems, increases in soil moisture resulted in decreases to nematode communities at all but the arid grassland ecosystem; mites showed no responses at any ecosystem. In addition, we found changes in proportional abundances of mite and nematode trophic groups as soil moisture increased within individual ecosystems, which may result in shifts within soil food webs with important consequences for ecosystem functioning. We suggest that communities of soil animals at local scales may respond predictably to changes in moisture availability regardless of ecosystem type but that additional factors, such as climate variability, vegetation composition, and soil properties may influence this relationship over larger scales.