damage, immune system activation, impaired protein function, or aberrant DNA methylation. In the case of DNA methylation, I demonstrate that inhibiting DNA methylation dynamics can impair long-term memory formation, while the nurse-to- forager transition is not altered. These experiments could serve as the bases for and reference groups of studies testing the effects of metal or metalloid toxicity on DNA methylation. Each potential mechanism provides an avenue for investigating how neural function is influenced by the physiological status of non-neural organs. And from an ecological perspective, my results highlight the need for environmental policy to consider sublethal effects in determining safe environmental toxin loads for honey bees and other insect pollinators.
Lactate is a commonly known biochemical that is usually produced under anaerobic conditions. This makes it a useful marker for examining the possibility that Drosophila melanogaster undergoes natural hypoxic states during development due to the rate of growth. To analyze this observation and its potential for explaining developmental changes, a lactate assay was used to quantify lactate produced across time points in the third larval instar and across early adulthood. Lactate assay results showed near-zero lactate levels for both larvae and adults. There were confounding factors present in larval lactate assays which made analysis difficult. However, the results of the adult lactate assays seem to indicate an inability to produce large amounts of lactate regardless of time point in adulthood, suggesting that adults do not naturally experience hypoxia during or after eclosion.
All organisms perform best at a balanced point of intake where nutrients are ingested in specific amounts to confer optimal performance. However, when faced with limited nutrient availability, organisms are forced to make decisions which prioritize intake of certain macronutrients. While intake regulation has been more thoroughly studied in omnivores and carnivores, no research exists regarding lipid regulation in generalist herbivores. Traditionally, proteins and carbohydrates were thought to be the most important macronutrient for herbivore intake; however the large differences in lipid nutritional content between different plant species offers lots of potential for regulation of an important macronutrient. We studied whether generalist herbivores can regulate lipid intake, using the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria). Though herbivore protein and carbohydrate intake is well studied, less research studies regulation of lipid intake. We tested this by offering choice diets of varying carbohydrate and lipid content makeup and measuring consumption of each diet choice to determine overall carbohydrate and lipid intake. Four different lipid sources were used in order to control for taste or texture related confounds; canola oil, sunflower oil, grapeseed oil, and a lab designed synthetic oil based on the four most abundant fatty acids in common plant oils. On three out of four diet sources, groups evidences strong regulation of narrow intake target, with little disparity in overall intake of carbohydrate and lipid content between various choice diet treatments. Groups feeding on canola oil and sunflower oil based diets displayed the best regulation based on their having small disparities in intake between treatments, while those feeding on grapeseed oil based diets displayed wide variation in feeding behavior between treatments. Groups feeding on the synthetic oil based diet choice unexpectedly consumed much more carbohydrates than lipids when compared to all other groups. In conclusion, generalist herbivores are capable of regulating lipid intake.
Foraging honey bees are challenged to balance the energetic costs of thermoregulating and load-carriage at the same time when flying in hot environments. Honey bees can reduce metabolic rate and wingbeat frequency in response to heat, but the kinematic strategies they use while carrying loads are unknown. I observed honey bees (Apis mellifera) carrying a range of nectar loads (0 to 80% of their own body weight in nectar) when flying at 25 and 40°C air temperatures, and found that hotter honey bees decreased their wingbeat frequency (from 230 to 195 Hz) and increased their stroke amplitude (from 90 to 98°) to generate increasing aerodynamic power as they carry heavier nectar loads. The bees flying at 40°C air temperature carrying heavier loads did increase their wingbeat frequency compared to the unloaded individuals. Despite the kinematic changes, both the hot and cold honey bees were able to generate sufficient power to carry loads of roughly equal mass. Bees flying at 40°C air temperature produced more power than their cooler counterparts, suggesting a more efficient mechanism of load carriage.